Development of Controlled Drug Delivery Systems (CDDS)

Development of Controlled Drug Delivery Systems (CDDS) 1.1 CONTROLLED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS (CDDS) Now a day’s on the development of Novel drug delivery systems (NDDS) marked consideration has been focused. The method of drug delivery to the site of action shows a significant effect on its efficacy. It leads to the development and evolution of novel drug delivery systems that enhanced performance of potential drug molecules. Novel drug delivery systems play a key role in pharmaceutical research and development. Since when compared new chemical moiety the developmental cost and time required for introducing NDDS is relatively low. Oral route remains one of the most ‘natural’ routes of drug administration and has seen remarkable accomplishments in the last couple of decades towards optimization of oral delivery of drug molecules. Oral ingestion is one of the oldest and most extensively used routes of drug administration. They provide an effective method of obtaining systemic and local effects. Drug delivery describes a process whereby a therapeutic agent is administered to the body in a controlled manner. The product’s commercial and clinical value, product differentiation can be improved by developed drug delivery technologies. These advanced technologies serve as an advanced resource to outreach the competition. By simplifying the administration and dosing regimen drug delivery technologies make medicine more acceptable and convenient to a patient. Any drug molecule by using Novel drug delivery system (NDDS) can get a ‘new life,’ and thus improving the competitiveness, patent life and market value. Among different NDDS present in the market, the major share in the market is hold by the oral controlled release systems because of its greater benefits of patient compliance and ease of administration. The development of novel and highly versatile delivery systems and osmotic drug delivery systems are the major contribution in oral NDDS. Basically, there are three novel modes of drug delivery, i.e. Targeted delivery, Modulated release and Controlled release. Targeted delivery refers to the administration of a drug carrier systemically in order to deliver drug to the specific type of cells, tissues or organs. Modulated release implies use of a drug delivery device that releases the drug under controlled environmental conditions, bio feedback, sensor input or an external control device at a variable rate. Controlled release refers to a specific device that delivers the drug at specific release profiles or at a predetermined rate into the patient body. 1.1 CONTROLLED DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEMS (CDDS) The nature of the controlled release dosage form is such that the release is determined by the design of the system and the physiochemical properties of the drug and is independent of the external factors or the microenvironment in which the dosage form is placed. These products typically provide significant benefits over immediate-release conventional dosage formulations. Optimum therapy with repetitive administration of conventional dosage forms (e.g. injectables, liquids or tablets) can classically be pursued by dosage scheduling. The aim of this process is to maintain drug concentration in a therapeutic range, above the minimum effective concentration and below the toxic concentration. Thus CDDS avoids the undesirable saw tooth characteristics of the plasma concentration vs time profiles of the conventional drug products. A diagrammatic illustration of controlled versus conventional dosage delivery is shown in Figure-1. Fig 1.1 Plasma Time profile of controlled drug release and conventional release The plasma concentration of the drug reaches a maximum (crest) with conventional dosage forms and then decrease (trough) at the point where repeated administrations becomes necessary to maintain the plasma drug concentration. Very often the initial concentration is above the therapeutically effective level that may increase the risk of side effects. Conventional dosage forms can thus result in a drug regimen in which the drug concentration oscillates between alternating periods of overdose and inefficiency. The delivery of drug at controlled rate over an extended period of time is represented mathematically: Rate in = Rate out = Ke x Cd x Vd Where Cd is the desired drug level, Vd is the volume of distribution and Ke rate content for drug elimination from the body. Added to this, the high cost of development of new, safe, specific and effective drug molecule is prohibitive and developing nations virtually cannot afford such integrated multi-group cost intensive drug development ventures. Therefore, many pharmaceutical industries and drug research institute oriented their efforts to develop pre-programmed unattended delivery of drug at a rate and for a period to meet and achieve the therapeutic need. These systems are coined as Controlled drug delivery systems Table 1.1 Classification of oral controlled release systems depending on mechanism of Release 3 (vyas etal,2002) 1.1.1. ADVANTAGES OF CONTROLLED RELEASE PRODUCTS 4 As controlled release dosage form are slightly expensive than conventional formulations, they cannot be justified unless they offer come clinical or practical advantages given below: Reduction in dosing frequency More uniform effect Reduced fluctuation in steady levels Increased safety margin of high potency drugs Improved patient convenience and compliance Reduced in total amount of dose administered Avoidance of night time dosing Reducing of GI irritation and other dose related side effects and Reduction in health care cost. 1.1.2.DISADVANTAGES OF CONTROLLED RELEASE PRODUCTS 4 However, controlled drug delivery systems also have some disadvantages. They include, High cost; Poor systemic availability; Unpredictable and often poor invitro-invivo correlation; Possibility of dose dumping; Dosage adjustments potential is reduced; First pass clearance potential is increased; In case of hypersensitivity reactions, toxicity or poisoning drug retrieval is difficult; Effect of oral dose depends on Mean Residence Time. To control or change the drug release from a dosage form there will be a number of design options. Most of the per oral controlled release dosage forms comes under the category of osmotic, matrix or reservoir systems. The polymer matrix contains embedded drug in matrix systems in which the release occurs by partitioning of drug into the release medium and polymer matrix. In case of reservoir systems a rate controlling membrane is surrounded and coated around the drug core. But, drug release from conventional controlled systems i.e., reservoir and matrix systems is affected by various factors like presence of food, pH and different physiological factors. In case of osmotic systems the drug is delivered based on the principles of osmotic pressure. The drug release from this system doesn’t depend on the pH and various physiological parameters and thus by optimizing the drug and systems properties the release characteristics can be modulated. 1.2. OSMOTIC DRUG DELLIVERY SYSTEMS – A REVIEW 1.2.1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND In 1955 Rose and Nelson utilized the principles of osmotic pressure in drug delivery for the first time. They described two systems; one that delivered 0.02 ml/day for 100 days and another that delivered 0.5 ml/day for 4 days, both for use in Pharmacological research. In the 1970s, Higuchi and Leeper proposed a series of variations of the Rose-Nelson pump5. Theeuwes further modified the Rose-Nelson pump and developed a system. Small osmotic pumps of these forms are sold under the trade name ALZET (Alza Corp., CA). The device has a volume of approximately 170Â µl, and the normal delivery rate is 1Â µl/hr. A major milestone was achieved in 1974 with the description by Theeuwes and Alza’s co-workers of a tablet design composed of a compressed tablet-core surrounded by a semi permeable membrane with a single orifice, so-called Elementary osmotic pump (EOP). This design adaptation for human use was conveniently processable using standard tabletting and coating procedures and equipment. The first two products indomethacin, Osmosin6 and phenylpropanolamine, Acutrim TM6 were launched in the 1980s. Oral osmotic drug delivery system (OODS) development continued with two new OODS designs, the controlled-porosity osmotic pumps (CPOP) and the push-pull osmotic pumps (PPOP). The first of these was the CPOP, which was designed to decrease the risk of extremely localized drug-induced irritation at the site close to the orifice. In the 2000s, a new drug product based on OODS technology was formulated to deliver methylphenidate to children (above the age of 6 years) with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). These delivery systems were based on a new design, the push-stick osmotic pumps (PSOP), which combined immediate and sustained drug release phases. The drug release from this system doesn’t depend on the pH and various physiological parameters and thus by optimizing the drug and systems properties the release characteristics can be modulated. In the last few years more number of patents are granted on these oral omotic drug delivery systems. These systems has ability to improve therapeutic agents clinical profile and so they are becoming one of the most attractive technologies today. Osmotically controlled oral drug delivery system for the controlled delivery of active agents follows osmotic pressure principle. For the controlled drug delivery osmotic devices are most assured strategy based systems. Among the controlled drug delivery systems these are most reliable systems. Osmotic systems could be used in the form of implantable devices or oral drug delivery systems. Osmotic pump tablet (OPT) generally consists of a core including the drug, an osmotic agent, other excipients and semi-permeable membrane coat. 1.2.2. THEORY Osmosis can be defined as spontaneous movement of a solvent from a solution of lower solute concentration to a solution of higher solute concentration through an ideal semi permeable membrane, which is permeable only to the solvent and impermeable to solute. The pressure applied to the higher-concentration side to inhibit solvent flow is called osmotic pressure8. Osmotic pressure is a colligative property, which depends on concentration of solute that contributes to osmotic pressure. Solutions of different concentrations having the same solute and solvent system exhibit an osmotic pressure proportional to their concentrations. Thus a constant osmotic pressure, and thereby a constant influx of water can be achieved by an osmotic delivery system that results in a constant zero order release rate of drug8. PRINCIPLE OF OSMOSIS An osmotic system releases a therapeutic agent at a predetermined, zero order delivery rate based on the principle of Osmosis, which is movement of a solvent from lower concentration of solute towards higher concentration of solute across a semi-permeable membrane. When osmotic system is administered, from the one or more delivery ports the drug that contain suspension or solutions is pumped out of the core due to the hydrostatic pressure developed by the imbibition of water in to the core osmotically through the semi-permeable membrane. By the water influx through semi-permeable membrane the delivery of drug from this system can be controlled. Osmotic pressure is directly proportional to temperature and concentration and the following equation describes the relation between them: ÃŽ   = ØcRT where OP = osmotic pressure, ÃŽ   = osmotic coefficient, c = molar concentration, R = gas constant, T = Absolute temperature. OSMOTIC PUMPS Osmotic pump is a new delivery device, which delivers drugs or other active agents at a controlled rate by the principle of osmosis. Control resides in the water permeation properties of the formulations Table: 1.2 Examples of some marketed band of Osmotic drug delivery system7 DEPARTMENT OF PHARMACEUTICAL TECHNOLOGY, SVCPPAGE 1

Critos Arguments to Socrates

Critos Arguments to Socrates Hale, Aubrieann In this paper I will be analyzing Crito in the aspects of context, main issues, Socratic reversal, athlete/physician analogy and the consequences. The first two are fairly weak. The third, concerning Socrates responsibility to his children is the strongest. Crito presents many reasons to Socrates for why Socrates should escape. The first two are fairly weak. The third, concerning Socrates responsibility to his children is the strongest. Critos first argument is that if Socrates does not escape, then Socrates will then in turn be hurting Crito in two ways. One Crito will lose a good friend when Socrates dies and Critos reputation will in turn be hurt too. People wont know that Socrates chose to remain in jail, they will think Crito had the opportunity to get Socrates out but that he did not do so because he was not willing to spend the money. With that Crito will get a reputation for caring more for money than for a friend. This argument only considers the consequences of Socrates action for Crito. In Critos second argument, he speculates about why Socrates does not want to escape. He says that if Socrates is worried that by escaping he will harm his friends who could get in trouble for trying to helping him escape, then his fears are un founded. They are willing to risk this or even something worse for him, and it is cheap to pay off both the guards along anyone who might inform on them, so there will not be much risk. While it may be possible to pay people off, there is still the question of whether it is moral. In his third argument Crito mentions Socrates responsibility to his children. As their father, it is Socrates responsibility to see that his children are brought up well and educated, and he cannot do this if he is dead. Crito appeals to what is important to Socrates. He points out that pursuing goodness is how Socrates wants to lead his life, and that a good man would see that his children are cared for. Crito says that staying in jail is the easy thing to do, but escaping takes courage, and the right thing to do is to be brave for the sake of his children. In response to Critos arguments Socrates considers first, why the opinion of the majority is not the most important opinion, second, what the consequences of escaping would be for the city of Athens, and third whether escaping is an unjust action such that it would harm Socrates soul. Many of Critos arguments concern the opinion of the majority what will they think if Crito does not help Socrates escape? What will they think if Socrates is not responsible for his children? Socrates argues that the opinion of an expert is more important than the opinion of the majority. He gives the example of someone in training. An athlete does not pay attention to the advice of the general public, but to their trainer. If they listened to public opinion such as taking steroids, eat whatever they want, train 20 hours a day, they could hurt their body. Socrates extends the analogy if they listen to the majority rather than experts they could harm their souls, the part of a person that is damaged by w rong actions and benefited by right ones. Socrates most fundamental principles that the really important thing is not to live but to live well. Therefore, he considers whether it is morally right to pay off the guards and escape. He begins addressing this issue by considering the consequences for the city. He says that the laws and the city could be destroyed if he escaped. Legal judgments could lose their force if they were not abided by private citizens, and a city without laws would not remain intact for very long. Socrates also thought he would be harming the condition of his soul by escaping. He thought his soul would be harmed because he assumed that by harming the city he would be also harming his soul. Being responsible for harm to others is something that causes harm to ones soul. He also would have suffered harm to his soul because he broke an agreement. He made a tacit agreement to follow the laws of Athens because he lived under them for seventy years, raised his children under them, and did not try to persuade t he city to change them. Socrates himself points out that this is an incorrect assumption. He says that Crito overlooks the possibility that his friends would be both willing and capable of bringing his children up. If he were to escape, he does not think it would be in his childrens best interest to raise them there, because there they would be considered foreigners. If he escaped he would ask his friends to take care of his children in Athens, and there is no reason why they should take care of them if he escapes but not if he dies. Those who were known to have aided him in making his escape would be driven into exile or lose their property and be deprived of citizenship. If he should go to one of the neighboring cities, such as Thebes or Megara, he would be regarded as an enemy and all of their patriotic citizens would look at him poorly. In addition, they would argue that anyone who has broken the laws would also be a corrupter of the young and foolish portion of humanity. If Socrates should go away from well-governed states to Critos friends, his reception there would be no better, for the people would ridicule him for preaching sentiments about justice and virtue but then betraying all that he has taught in order to gain a little longer life. By refusing to escape, Socrates can depart from this life in innocence, a sufferer and not a doer of evil, and a victim, not of the laws but of men. On the other hand, if he chooses to break the covenants and agreements he has made, the citizens of the state, including his own friends, will despise him.

A Summary of West Side Story :: West Side Story

West Side Story   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The drama/musical, which parodies the story of Romeo & Juliet, takes place in a city of New York, probably in the early 50’s late 40’s. It is a tale of two rival gangs, which despises the other in a vicious circle of hate. Riff leader of the Jets; a group mainly of Polish origin and the Sharks of Spanish origin with their leader Bernardo. It seems as though the two rivals have been at their quarrels since before the story took place. Through mysterious fate the neutral one’s from either side meet. From the Jets: loyal friend to Riff, Tony, and from the Sharks the beautiful Maria sister of Bernardo. Eyes met and soon enough love was in the air, the thought of each other cursed through both of their veins. From that day of the dance, a meeting was to take place involving both gangs in which they will once and for all settle the rivalry in a rumble. Alas, tragedy strikes and strikes hard at that. The leaders of both gangs fall to the ground. Riff by the hands of Bernardo, then Bernardo by the hands of Tony. Angry and confused Maria still retains her love for Tony even after her only brother was slain, but little did they know the jealous Chino had caught on to the lovers. In order to escape the justice of the law Tony had to make his escape but first found aid among his friends. A message was sent through Anita, girlfriend to Bernardo, for Maria was detained by the police at the time for questioning. Anita angry at how cruel and stubborn the Jets could be gave a message that was totally unorthodox to the one originally said. The message was of Chino who had killed of Maria after finding out the truth of the two, hearing this Tony had completely lost his will to live and called through the streets of the city for Chino to come and kill him.

Weight Loss with the Atkins Advantage Bar :: Health Nutrition Diet Exercise Essays

Weight Loss with the Atkins Advantage Bar   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The low carbohydrate Atkins Diet is the latest craze in the weight loss world. The high fat and protein content of the diet is successful at reducing weight because carbohydrates produce an elevated insulin response which in turn increases hunger and the craving for more carbohydrates. Thus, the level of insulin increase from the intake of an Atkins Advantage Bar is almost equal with the insulin levels after the intake of chicken. Meanwhile, the Zone Diet’s Balance Bar, which contains 40% carbohydrates, causes insulin levels to increase above that of chicken and the Atkins Advantage Bar.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In order to lose weight in a short amount of time one should snack on the Atkins Advantage Bar. According to a study done by Steven R. Hertzler and Yeonsoo Kim, Ph.D.s of Nutrition, data showed that insulin levels remained at a constant 100 for those who consumed only chicken at a meal. Those who consumed an Atkins Advantage Bar insulin levels peaked at 200 after one half hour then slowly declined back down to a steady rate with the chicken level. If one were to eat chicken all day they would lose weight but it would not be in a very healthy way. Chicken is all protein and one needs some carbohydrates and fat to remain healthy. Variety is a must have in diets and chicken and only chicken is not good. The high in fat and protein Atkins Advantage Bar comes pretty close to this but still remains healthy because they have a few but not many carbohydrates. This bar goes along with the diet in that high fat and protein help one to lose weight at a constant rate with only a sparingly amount of carbohydrates. A slight increase of insulin levels within the first half hour of intake and then a steady decrease makes the Atkins Advantage Bar closest to chicken in insulin levels.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Meanwhile, the Zone Diet's Balance Bar is just as healthy but does not produce the weight loss results as rapidly due to the increase in carbohydrates. Hertzler and Yeonsoo's study of the effects of eating a balance bar as a meal showed that insulin levels rose to about 350 points after one half hour. This number is much higher than the 200 point peak of insulin levels with the intake of the Atkins Advantage Bar. This number soars above the 100 point consistency that chicken

Conceptualizing a New Product or Service Division of an Existing Business Essay

The success of an organization depends on the strategic plan. In the plan, it will define the mission, vision, ad value statements. The strategic plan is designed to assist the organization with its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. The SWOT analysis will help develop a strong strategic plan and map out the direction to follow to achieve an organizational vision and goal. The purpose of this paper is to cover the mission, vision and core value of De Von’s Printing. Define the guiding principles and strategic direction. Then introduce and identify the customer’s needs and how it achieves competitive advantage. Mission De Von’s is classified as a full service printing provider for standard and custom invitation, web design, and web support. The company’s clientele are individuals and organizations of any size or nature. The services offered to the clientele ranges from standard to custom. De Von’s center its dedication and customer appreciation around the skills of displaying the most outstanding customer service to each customer that the company serve. The company’s mission statement is to provide the customer with the highest quality product and service in a timely manner, and provide each customer with a competitive price. We will be honest, give professional advice and provide friendly customer service. Our goal will be to meet and exceed full expectation. The mission statement is a written declaration of an organization’s core purpose and focus that normally remains unchanged over time. Properly crafted mission statements (1) serve as filters to separate what is important from what is not, (2) clearly state which markets will be served and how, and (3) communicate a sense of  intended direction to the entire organization (â€Å"Mission Statement†, 2014). Vision De Von’s vision statement is to be a leader in the Printing industry. The way the company will display and honor the statement is to use innovative work practice with a self-improvement of the culture, to evaluate the new technology that will add value, and being socially responsible. We commit to our principles, product and service, ad clientele. The vision statement is an aspirational description of what an organization would like to achieve or accomplish in the mid-term or long-term future. It is intended to serves as a clear guide for choosing current and future courses of action (â€Å"Vision Statement†, 2014). Core Value The company’s core values are to discipline and respect the commitment that was developed, ownership to the goals, and take accountability and responsibility for our actions, uphold the trust, sensitivity, and professional conduct, and have a quality orientation and purpose of excellence. The core values are a company’s ethical and moral compass and decision making foundation. They are the ideals and ethics that management holds dear. They drive decision making in that they are constantly referred to in the decision making process. That is, when in a tough spot, the answer needs, first and foremost, to be consistent with the company values. They are generally for both internal and external consumption. They tell those in the company how things are done and those outside the company why they want to be associated with this company. Corporate values are best when they are few in number but high in meaning and lived daily (â€Å"Mission, Vision, and Value†, 2013). Guiding Principles The company’s core value is developed around the certainty that the standard and custom printing is a way to produce quality invitations for the clients. This makes it easier for those that do not wont cheap printing and looking for a professional look. De Von’s Printing guiding business principles are committed to follow is: a. Listen and communicate b. Leadership c. Courtesy and respectful d. Exceed customer expectation e. Excellence f. Share knowledge g. Simple process h. Team work i. Participate and contribute to activities The company has beliefs that the custom printing will target a huge segment of clients, who are in need of quality printing. The management team wants to serve a competitive price depending on the design. Organization’s Strategic Direction De Von’s objectives for the future are to achieve the goals in the strategic plan to expand on the growth for the company. Once the achievement has been accomplished, the management team would review the profit made and look at other opportunities in the printing industry such as screen printing. De Von’s future goal is to add to the partnership network with the competitors such as Paramount Printing. The executive and management team has discussed the advancement plan of the objectives. The objectives would include connect with web designers and screen printing organizations, communicate, and advertise the new service. Produce a partnership with local competitors by advertising workshops or seminars, and use a recruitment method to reach out to master printers. Use social media, such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram, to advertise and promote the product and service. The strategic plan solely depends on the mission, vision, and core values. The mission statement identifies the company and who it supports; the clientele, employees, and investors. The mission statement recognizes the proficiency within the industry. The clients realize that De Von’s Printing is committed with customer satisfaction, focus, and outstanding abilities. The vision statement summaries how the company wants to succeed by providing outstanding products and service to the clients. De Von’s vision is to become one of the popular printing companies in the area and through the United States. This shows that the company is committed to accomplishing and achieving excellence to the clients, staff and investors. It also shows that the ownership has motivation to be the best it can be and be loyal to  the goals for the company to expand. The core values of De Von’s Printing are correspondingly as impertative as the mission and vision statement of the organization’s strategic plan. Lastly, the value of integrity shows that cl ients and employees can trust the company to do what is right for not only clients, employees, and shareholders, but for the community and society as well. The Customer Needs and Achieved Competitive Advantages De Von’s top priority is to be able to meet the customer’s needs. The company has developed a strong communication method. This method has allowed the management team to utilize his or her listening skills. Once the communication and listening plan was put in place, they were able to understand what the clients were looking for in a product and services. There are three steps the team would need to follow in order to bring satisfaction to the clients. The steps would be Listen, Process, and Deliver. The team took the steps and developed a plan. The first step is Listen. Team A took the information from the clients and was able to understand what he or she was trying to achieve. Team B had the Process step. They reviewed the multiple solutions that were available and then were able to decide the best one for each individual or organization. In the Process step, the team used the advanced solution instead of the cheaper one. The last step is the deliver. This step Team C set a method for the clients to follow through, and establish a way for the client to meet the request of the customers by providing on time service, and a committed competitive price. De Von’s focus is to remain in an advance stage of bring competitive with the competitors. The management team and executive leaders have put in place ways to stay competitive in the Printing Industry. An incentive and training program was put in place to provide positive resources for the employees. Conclusion De Von’s Printing has a strong method of maintaining a positive strategic plan. The mission, vision, and values were properly evaluated and developed with a smooth path of organization. The mission statement identifies the company and who it supports; the clientele, employees, and investors. The vision statement gives a view of where the company has set out for the future and in what direction they plan to be. The core values are a guide  that helps the company to meet the goals that are set. De Von’s management team has realized that their biggest competitive advantage will be the clientele and the employees. . Reference â€Å"Mission Statement†, (2014). Retrieved from http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/mission-statement.html#ixzz35ZMkiGFn â€Å"Vision Statement†, (2014). Retrieved from http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/vision-statement.html#ixzz35aW3DgZb â€Å"Mission, Vision, and Value statement†, (2013). Retrieved from http://www.bellevuechamber.org/links/pdf/mission_vision_and_values_template.pdf

Evaluation of Evolutionary Theory of Altruism and the Role of Genes-a Modern View Essay

Evolutionary scheme holds that organisms with the strongest constituents for extract and reproduction do, in fact, survive and produce some successfully. They thus multiply their factors just about wide, spreadheading the usefulnessous genes through t push through ensemble populations. Ceaseless repetitions of the answer great deal bit by bit transform species into totally naked whizs. such a world seems to absorb no place for self-sacrificing types, who presumably couldnt spread their genes very far. Several competing theories start out to solve the puzzle.One is that groups with cooperative members out compete groups with selfish angiotensin converting enzymes, and thus spread their niceness genes, in a scaled-up adjustment of the do by which genetically lucky individuals trump former(a) individuals. Variants of this inwardness have gained popularity in the past decade, although it fell from choose earlier, as it has some trouble beg offing how self-sa crifice got a foothold in the origin place. The origin of altruism and cooperation is an enigma because ontogenyary theory seems to predict such doings should be r ar or nonexistent. save some forms of altruism, certain or non, be widely documented in creatures as humble as insects and bacteria. Evolutionary theory attempts to explicate the evolution of aiding early(a)s in devil general ways 1. It argues that genes favoring altruism mickle spread in future generations if their be to philanthropists ain generative success is outweighed by the benefits in reproductive success of philanthropists relation backs carrying copies of the equivalent genes (kin option). The ratio of these validating benefits through relatives, versus costs to oneself, take ons to be greater the less closely the altruist is related to those helped i. . , the lower the homogeneouslihood the altruist go forth be helping copies of their genes in the other. 2. It proposes that genes favoring altruism could spread if the altruism is sufficiently reciprocated (reciprocal altruism) (Axelrod, R. & Hamilton, 1981).Biological self-sacrifice versus Psychological Altruism Charles Darwin theorized that all species post in ways that increase their chances for pick. Often, this survival instinct expresses itself as selfish appearance. cosmos (and some animals), however, frequently ignore their ain interests and help othersa behavior called altruism. In volutionary biology, an organism is said to behave unselfishally when its behavior benefits other organisms, at a cost to itself.The costs and benefits atomic number 18 thrifty in terms of reproductive fitness, or expected number of return. So by behaving altruistically, an organism reduces the number of offspring it is potential to produce itself, but boosts the number that other organisms are likely to produce. This biologic notion of altruism is not identical to the passing(a) concept. In everyday parlance, an action would notwithstanding be called altruistic if it was done with the sensible role of helping another.But in the biologic sense there is no such requirement. Indeed, some of the virtually kindle examples of biological altruism are ensnare among creatures that are not capable of conscious concept at all, e. g. insects. Altruistic behavior is common throughout the animal kingdom, curiously in species with complex social structures. For example, vervet monkeys bring in alarm calls to warn married person monkeys of the presence of predators, even though in doing so they attract attention to themselves, change magnitude their personal chance of beingness attacked.In social insect colonies (ants, wasps, bees and termites), sterile workers bear their whole lives to caring for the queen, constructing and protecting the nest, grass for food, and tending the larvae. Such behavior is maximally altruistic sterile workers obviously do not leave whatsoever offspring of their own s o have personal fitness of zero but their actions greatly assist the reproductive efforts of the queen. Human altruism goes far beyond that which has been observed in the animal world.Among animals, fitness-reducing acts that confer fitness benefits on other individuals are largely confine to kin groups (Trivers, 1971)(Axelrod & Hamilton, 1981). Where valet behavior is concerned, the bank bill between biological altruism, define in terms of fitness consequences, and real altruism, defined in terms of the agents conscious intentions to help others, does make sense. ( somewhat eons the check off psychological altruism is used rather of real altruism. ) What is the relationship between these deuce concepts? They appear to be independent in both directions ( Sober, 1994).An action performed with the conscious intention of helping another human being whitethorn not affect their biological fitness at all, so would not count as altruistic in the biological sense. Most often, evolu tionary psychologists explain the presence of social behavior like altruism in valet and other animals by reference to kin option. mob selection is the idea that native selective pressures fag favor a gene if it provides a trace that makes ones relatives to a greater extent likely to survive because that relative likely carries m any of the said(prenominal) ( Dawkins, 1976) .Ultimately, I tend to find arguments for kin selection unconvincing for a whole armament of reasons, among them Theres seldom any consideration of the neural mechanisms that might be responsible, only the assumption that the gene will cause altruistic behavior if it is gold to the genes transmission and the most recent findings with the lock of neurotransmitters like dopamine, serotonin and norepinepinephrine along with others prove there is no validity to kin selection and crowing importance to individual affect and emotions including the timber of euphoria in being altruist. ) An softness to expla in why, if natural selection cares about our close relatives so ofttimes, our altruism gene couldnt be frequently to a greater extent selective about who we bump altruistic about . )The kin selection survey tends to take an adaptationist view of natural selection, presume that organic variation whoremaster tardily produce candidate adaptations to suit any environment and that all traits of an organism are necessarily adaptive (when, in fact, its a whole organism that is selected, not separately individual trait, and traits are often connected genetically so that selection might be acting on another trait produced by the same gene) (Haldane , 1955). ) The problem of how closely related we need to be to kin for our altruism to unfeignedly be a selective advantage if we are in competition with each other is frightening (Goldschmidt, 2006). The evolutionary carry out can generate behaviors that can be experienced in the evolutionary process but whose sloppeding can be complet ely detached from its superior biological motivation.Lets imagine that the evolutionary process produced a rotary of prompts in females, say defective breast, which at the time were a sign of a chars ability to produce more(prenominal) milk for her babies (more kids they can produce and feed, the more genes will propagate, so men instinctively desire to want to mate with these females ). Lets straightaway imagine that these females became sterile and the obsession for big breast had nothing to do with its received motivation.Taking from such observations we can say that a behavior which probably has been natural selection in the evolutionary process as Darwinian view suggests. heretofore the same behavior may contract new motivations and may lose captain evolutionary purpose altogether. For instance, it is just manageable that pleasurable sex originated because organisms that felt dandy having sex had more of it and thus passed on more genes. Sex today serves only if different role and in most cases is entirely unrelated to childbearing in humans.To trace altruistic behaviors in humans to evolutionary history ground entirely on Darwinian concepts of reproductive success does not grab the trends in its entirety. It is viable that throughout the course of evolution certain skittish systems bound tightly with others for reproductive success reasons. However, it should be kept in mind that altruism is a set of behavioral concepts that originated in the things we can strike and use as objects of exploration. True altruism can likely be a rewarding behavior that has little to do with its original biological altruism.Certain behaviors which give a greater chance of propagating our genes are likely to make us encounter good so that people who recover good about such actions may have more offsprings. If a vex felt good about delivery her kid, it is potential her championiac is organized in a way that she feels good economy another kid who is no t hers. However, we can say nothing about the scruple of why it makes us feel good, unless we try the task of finding the mechanism of both the biological evolutionary reasons as intimately as cultural components which caused the changes in the brain.The brain is structured in such a way that the feeling of compassion can be felt within its construction (limbic system, prefrontal cortex along with neurotransmitters dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine)(Moore, 1984). We can say that there are lot of levels of organization between original evolutionary purpose and its eventual expression. nearly of the most funda psychical questions concerning evolutionary origins of altruism and selfishness need to be dealt with a complex approach. Experimental evidence indicates that human altruism is a powerful force and is curious in the animal world.However, there is lots individual heterogeneity among altruists . Current gene-based evolutionary theories cannot explain all of import patt erns of human altruism, pointing towards the importance of both theories of cultural evolution as well as geneculture co-evolution. For evolutionary scientists, altruism is one of the great mysteries it feels good, is link to better mental and physical health, and is intrinsic to who we are, yet no one can quite explain how it evolved. The Feel-Good Chemicals and AltruismNow a new study suggests that altruism may be partly guided by genes that pose the neurotransmitter dopamine the one linked to craving, pleasure, and reward. dopamine, referred to as a neurotransmitter in the brains reward mechanism, can be unnaturally released at very high levels by drugs such as heroin and cocaine, lede to euphoria. If altruism operates along the same lines, it would mean that the altruist gets the same feeling, albeit at much lower volume, as a cocaine user. The feeling becomes an incentive to help others again.dopamine is widespread in the brain as well as the rest of the nervous system and plays a very important role in pleasure, love, libido, motivation, salience and consolidation of thoughts and feelings. This neurotransmitter plays a critical role in the control of movement. It has a stimulating effect on the heart, the circulation, the rate of metabolism, and is able to bait umteen of the personates dynamism reserves. It helps to modulate brain activity, control coordination and movement, and say the flow of information to different areas of the brain.Dopamine is believed to release chemicals that allow us to feel pleasure (e. g. , endorphins). A massive flutter of dopamine regulation in the brain can result in a person no longer being able to respond emotionally or express his or her feelings in an seize way (e. g. , schizophrenia). Our brains release favorable hits of dopamine when we engage in selfless behavior. Some individuals may be more genetically predisposed to altruism than others and that could be based on individual neurochemistry. This can be explained with the evidence from neuroscience.Its said that altruism results in elevated serotonin levels as well. serotonin happens to be the most widely studied neurotransmitter since it helps regulate a gigantic range of psychological and biological functions. serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT) was first identified in 1948. The wide extent of psychological functions adjust by serotonin involves vagary, anxiety, arousal, aggression, impulse control, and thought process abilities. Other brain chemicals, such as dopamine and norepinephrine, also influence mood and arousal along with serotonin.It is said that altruism results in elevated serotonin levels. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter and also a neuromodulator for dopamine. It can mobilize the energy reserve of the body and aid in maintaining dopamine function in brain circuits of mood and thought mesocortical and mesolimbic pathways. Dopamine has 5 receptors and subsets of dopamine genes turn in the general population, a nd the study finds that a specific, common subtype is highly linked to altruistic behavior. The research, conducted at Hebrew University and other centers, was published in the journal Molecular psychological medicine in 2005.Psychologists and geneticists looked at 354 families with more than one child, measuring the individuals tendencies to ignore their own need and serve the needs of others a trait associated within dopamine genes. They then analyze the individuals dopamine receptors for well- cognize variations, or genotypes. Their matter to findings the most common genetic subtype known as the D4. 4 was significantly linked to altruistic behavior, regardless of whether the receiver was a relative. But in general, say the scientists, this gives us the first hard evidence that many of us are indeed hardwired for well-favored.It may be that generosity feels good because it is rewarded by spikes in dopamine. The scientists even speculate that elevate research could reveal v ariations in dopamine genes that favor generosity to kin, and others that favor giving to all and thus these neurotransmitter studies give us latest information regarding both an dainty counter-argument to the selfish gene hypothesis as well as a much more persuasive account of the possible evolutionary origins of altruism than the typical definition like kin selection (Neimark, 2006).

Facilitating Learning And Assessment In Practice

IntroductionI am a registered entertain based in a hospital ward that manages spinal and orthopaedic conditions among diligent roles. Currently, I am finalising my discipline as a subject teach. This report presents a reflective account of my experiences in facilitating, teaching, and valuateing school-age child noesis during their breeding institutionalize. It as well up heightslights the study exits drawn from the experience. Due to ethical retainers of any academician publication, which demands confidentiality, and anonymity of the persons that were actively involved in my hit, this paper omitted names or executiond pseudonyms in the cultivation of the account (Polit & Beck, 2008).Practice-based instruction provides the scholarly persons with required experience, which is an essential setting of acquisition increment that enhances their ability to in force(p)ly interact with clients as well as their families by ontogeny the bookmans communication, i nterpersonal, psychomotor, and technical skills (My tout ensemble et al., 2008). Practice-based encyclopedism is in addition an trenchant opportunity that allows the learners to link theory and execute, which argon vital in the learners skipper goment (Zachary, 2011). Furthermore, fargon-based learning is essential in a treat c beer due to its vocational temper as well as its role in determining the learners clinical competence and hence protecting the public from instances of in skill in treat course session (NMC, 2008). Through demanding and instilling towering standards of professed(prenominal)ism during sagacitys, practice-based learning makes sure that nurse disciples be commensurate to stiffly practice before they ar registered as nurses (Myall et al., 2008).This demonstration of my eligibility to assess and supervise treat scholarly persons in practice coupled with lucky completion of this genteelness provide allow me to be an effective teach in care for ( scathe, 2007). Therefore, I leave alone be capable to actively participate in the larnment of future nurses that will meet the motives of diligents, which atomic number 18 increasing in diversity and complexity (Polit & Beck, 2008). sympathize with for StandardsIn order to promote adherence to item attributes that take appraisal and learning in practice, the breast feeding standards offers specific guidelines that must be met by teachers, practice teachers and mentors (NMC, 2008). Specifically, the fixed affectments cover standards, frame running(a), and selective information on the flakes for estimate in breast feeding practice. There standards are outlined by eight domains including leading, evidence-based practice, context of practice, creating a learning surroundings, learning evaluation, perspicacity and accountability, learning facilitation, and turn upment of semiprecious running(a) descents (NMC, 2009).Linking these domains to my own practic e, I hold high experience for leadership and formation of useful working relationships. Establishment of good working relationships is essential in nursing as a nurse works together with the long-sufferings family in ensuring the best nursing care is provided for the patient (Polit & Beck, 2008 Appendix 1) enhancing the standards of care. Good working relationship is also important in minimizing the negative schoolchild experiences building on the school-age childs force in practice (NMC, 2008). Consideration of the instantness of family-centred commence to nursing care and the promotion of good working relationships demands effective leadership. To be specific, leadership in my incase involves influencing others, improving nursing care, and role modelling (NMC, 2009). This demands diligence of a locational cost to leadership when handling divergent leadership situations at work. In my work setting, leadership is broad ranging from handling the patients family issues, w hich requires participative leadership, or directing a practicing bookman, which demands assertiveness. However, it is imperative for a nurse to act in the best interest of the patient (Price, 2007) which foundation best be achieved done bossy approach to leadership. Consequently, establishment of effective leadership and relationships require experience, skill, and experience and are vital in the readying of high- flavor nursing care (Myall et al., 2008).There are some(prenominal) professional argufys that I encountered during the estimate which emanated from the complexities related to staffing levels and hurry in the ward that negatively see the quality of practice legal opinion (Polit & Beck, 2008). The sustained pressure from clinical commitments and the limited conviction availability affects the parade of disciple supervision and judging during practice-based learning (NMC, 2009). More so, in that location whitethorn be inconsistency in achievement, which aff ects the do work of pupil appraisal with regard to their fitness to practice (NMC, 2008). In other cases, some educatees in practice-based learning do non conform to the existing backing systems for instances of goure limiting their learning and effectiveness of the sagacity. In addition, the supervisor may be reluctant to miss an incompetent learner due to perception that he process is too complex or popular poor assessment, this also posed a challenge in my practice.The existing nursing standards that guide learning and assessment of schoolchilds in practice offer mannequins for nursing mentors. However, the document is limited, as it does not consider all competence assessment aspects (Myall et al., 2008). Therefore, some forms of assessment are subjective as much as the framework for assessment is provided due to the intrinsic temper of the nursing profession and the variations in nursing skill-set to be assessed. It is contend to establish a comprehensive assessment of ability curiously due to learners spontaneous action to engage their skills, knowledge, and attitude from an emotional intelligence perspective (Bradshaw & Merriman, 2008). These issues are enhanced in situations where a mentor fails to fail instances of in strength among learners (Myall et al., 2008). These chores are resolved through the use of sign-off mentors that offer final evaluation of the disciples before be accredited to be effective to suffice as professional nurses at the end of nursing training program (NMC, 2009). Consequently, more remain firm to the nursing standards is conducted to promote effectiveness of learning assessment for practice-based learning. This support is provided various nursing documents such(prenominal) as nursing guides, which offer strategies and support for practitioners in the nursing profession.Facilitating attainment and AssessmentThis is an important approach for assessing skills, knowledge and attitudes among nursing scholars (Price, 2007) and is complex in nature with the focus of promoting objectivity in the assessments (Bradshaw & Merriman, 2008). The ensure the diversity of the nursing settings are accommodated during the assessments, there are several assessment approaches that apprize be used in disciple mentorship programs including mini clinical assessment exercise, direct observation, case-based discussion, and mini confederate assessments (Myall et al., 2008). Mini clinical assessment exercise offers an overview of bookman public presentation of key clinical skills. This assessment approach works both in routine patient encounter as well as ward environment. Direct observation of procedural skills involves observe a nursing scholarly person which conducting a clinical surgery where the observer provides necessary feedback at the end of the procedure. A good example of a clinical procedure that can be observed is preparation of a dressing trolley by a educatee. Case-based discussion, on the other hand, involves an interview aimed at exploring judgment and demeanor such as postulation the school-age child to argument what he/she observed during a specific patient care program. Finally, mini peer assessments encompass a team of qualified professionals that offer feedback on the performance of an respective(prenominal).The process of selecting the method of assessment should consider its live effectiveness, educational impact, acceptability, validity, and reliability (Bradshaw & Merriman, 2008). Assessing a students craft knowledge helps the student to reflect and develop based on experiential learning (NMC, 2009). efficacious assessment should focus on developing perceptivenesss into a students craft and formal knowledge in order to understand the students ability to assess risks and utilise learned knowledge in meeting practice requirements (Price, 2007). There are four vital areas that cover student assessment, that is to say motivation, performance, skill, and knowledge. rase though continuous assessment is know to promote effective positioning of a students performance, it has limitations with regard to reliability and validity. Therefore, successful carrying out of student assessment require coordination among service providers and educators to ensure the assessment approach is permit in terms of its summative and formative perspectives which are imperative in promoting a working linkage amidst theory and practice (Myall et al, 2008). Mentorship program in clinical setting is complex due to the pressure emanating from the need of sustained student assessment in precedent of the patients and their family as well as other professionals, which may raise worry among the students as well as assessors, which may negatively impact on the assessment process (Bradshaw & Merriman, 2008). Anxiety may be caused by a variety of reasons including curriculum changes, which may profane the assessors force, the students pushiness during as sessment, and the assessors beliefing of strength with regard to the assessment process.This portfolio outlines an assessment of the competency of a nursing student with regard to the enamour use of chafe assessment tools. I considered this to be vital in the profession of nursing due to the importance of torture assessment skills in nursing care as it is classified as the fifth vital sign in nursing (Murray et al., 2008). Considering the requirement that nursing students should actively participate in vital signs, developing this competency is vital for patient safety (Price, 2007). Further, I considered this assessment to be a direct observation of a procedural skill where I was available during the whole process spot offering feedbacks and assessments on the process (NMC, 2009). To ensure the assessment was a success, I developed a protrude that included a criterion for implementing the process as well as questions that were used for testing the levels of brain exhibited by the learner. Furthermore, the assessment architectural excogitate was developed with the consideration for the students level of practical and hypothetic learning (Myall et al., 2008). The questioned used in the assessment were unrestricted to allow the student to offer the rationale after part their action path. This was important in developing deeper insight into the leaners competency, as well as promotes appreciation of diverse approaches to skills application (Murray et al., 2008).The assessment was initiated after ensuring the ward was quiet enough to understate the effect of a noisy setting on the assessment program. The process commenced with an official introduction between me and the student as an approach to familiarization between me and the student to minimise instances of anxiety (Price, 2007). After that, I proceeded by ratting the student my expectations, the timeline, and offered my reassurance that the process was not formal as I was just interest in ob serving the process and offering my feedback at the end of the process (Murray et al., 2008). As much as I managed to develop effective background information needed to establish an effective assessment void of anxiety, I did not inquire about the learners prior experience, which could have assisted in the assessment process. As much as I had previous encounter with the student, lack of enough background information hampered my effective participation in the growth of the student during the practice-based learning. Furthermore, I did not clearly identify the outcomes of the assessment at the beginning of the assessment. As much as appropriate information was provided and the environment was conducive, developing a compact of discussion could have enhanced the levels of student preparation of the expectations as well as minimize anxiety and confusion (NMC, 2009).When the student completed the first process, I asked the student several questions. These questions were established to evaluate the students communication skills, their intelligence of the problem at hand, and general nursing skills (Murray et al., 2008). From the assessment, I observed that the student effectively communicated with the patient as well as the patients family a clear voice of practical application of family-centred approach to nursing (Price, 2007). The student also effectively addressed the nursing situation at hand, as he utilised Wong-Baker pain rating to stabling the pain situation by the patient (Wong et al., 2001). After the student had gained an appropriate pain score, I asked the student a question regarding the appropriate frequency for observing pain, in which the response of the student was appropriate (Bradshaw & Merriman, 2008). From the case, it was evident that I had a problem with my communication skills as I had to repeat myself on an individual basis before the student could understand what I was addressing. ominous my communication speed is necessary to enhanc e the students ability to comprehend the information apt(p) to them during assessment and minimise on instances where students are overwhelmed by information that is faster than their processing rates.I offered the student a feedback session with the aim of promoting proactive learning relation with the student (Murray et al., 2008). This feedback included active affaire of the student in the development of an action plan for dealing with the set inconsistencies during the assessment. Considering that the student demonstrated competency in the skill that I was assessing, the action plan was centered on increasing the number of substitute approaches that can be used in applying the skill with the focus on increasing the students reflexive skill and hence a holistic competency (Zachary, 2011). The process of provision of the feedback considered developing a positive and constructive impact on the student to assist the student in building self-esteem, cultivating a positive working relationship as well as a supportive learning environment which are important aspects that reduces anxiety during nursing practice (Myall et al, 2008). Research has demonstrated that student-mentor relationship influences the students learning experience (Price, 2007) and therefore, effective communication between the mentor and the learner can illicit competency concerns at early stages to minimise instances of loser (Zachary, 2011). Even though the student and the mentor may feel sad due to a failed assessment, it is vital for the mentor to appreciate failure as avoiding to report of failure may have an adverse effect on the progression of the student (Bradshaw & Merriman, 2008). This feedback was provided immediately after the assessment session as an approach to providing the student with spark off support and offer immediate corrective flyer for any unpleasant conduct exhibited by the student during the session (Zachary, 2011).Based on the assessment and my individual refle ctions on the outcomes, I identified various areas of my practice that require improvement. Specifically, my feedback on the assessment was limited and did not offer the student a wider telescope on improvement. Furthermore, my speaking speeds need to be slowed to ensure effective communication. I also need to focus on developing in-depth background information about the student before the assessment as well as offering the student the expected outcomes of the assessment. In addition, asking the patient about the service will also enhance the determination of the performance of the student as well as development of an effective feedback. brooding CommentaryMentorship is an important leadership characteristic (Zachary, 2011). Transformational leadership is founded on the ability of an individual to influence others through affecting their thinking. Adoption of this approach of leadership in nursing promotes autonomy as well as enabling the students to realise their full potential. I t is also underlying to encouraging the development of excellent Interprofessional rapport (Myall et al., 2008). By becoming a role model at work through formulating solutions to problems that exist within nursing mentorship, I will be able to public assistance myself as well as the student. This influence can also be transferred to other situations in the nursing environment, which will culminate to a give way outcome in my nursing practice (Price, 2007). Common obstacles to mentorship such as staffing issues, hectic hospital environment, and clinical commitments influence my ability to perform as a mentor and hence the development of an effective relation with the student is essential (Price, 2007 Appendix 2).Due to the hectic nature of the nursing environment it is challenging to get time for developing a written feedback for the student hitherto to enhance by mentorship capability I need to establish relationship with other mentors that is founded on overlap evaluation feed back as an approach to building my scope with regard to student evaluation. Being able to overlap with other mentors about feedback can also fan out my evaluation to the benefit of the student. As much as this approach is effective in enhancing a student mentorship program in hospital settings, it is challenging especially in cases where other mentors are not interested in sharing their experiences and work limiting its usability. Promoting teamwork in mentorship can be an effective approach to overcoming this obstacle. traffic with the problem of anxiety requires innate understanding of the student, which implies discussing with the student the most appropriate way for implementing the assessment. This is effective as it encourages the student to be actively engaged in the assessment program and also creating a better relationship between the mentor and the student (Zachary, 2011). remnantThe process of student assessment is only successful if it is administered objectively and fairly. As much as this approach may result to some emotional distresses by both the assessor and the student, it is imperative for the success of a mentorship program and pr howevertion of negative implications on the students advancement. It is also necessary for ensuring approved nurses are competent enough to guarantee patient safety. Therefore, I am determined to ensure that students that I mentor, assess and approve and fit and competent to service as nurses in their respective fields. To achieve this, I will focus on developing a scalelike working relationship with the students to ensure all competency issues are identified and addressed timely. This is important in ensuring the students that I encounter do not human face surprises later during their summative assessment or even when practicing as registered nurses. Furthermore, involvement of the patients and their families in the assessment of my students will be a major trademark of my mentorship and assessment program a s I regard inputs by the patient vital to determining the competency of the student nurse.Consequently, as much as the practice of assessment and mentorship is challenging and compound in nature, I trust that effective application of relevant knowledge and skills while focusing on the expected outcomes, it is possible to let efficiently in this function. This reflection process has enriched my understanding on the concept of mentorship and its significance in the nursing profession. It has also enhanced my perception of the concept of professional and personal development. I believe that if I exceed the few areas of weakness that I have identified in the reflection, I will be able to offer effective mentorship and assessment for nursing students in clinical practice.References Bradshaw, A., & Merriman, C. (2008). Nursing competence 10 age on fit for practice and purpose however? journal of Clinical Nursing, 17(10) 1263-1269.Murray, C., Grant, MJ., Howarth, ML., & Leigh, J. (200 8). The use of simulation as a teaching and learning approach to support practice learning. Nurse Education in Practice, 8(1) 5-8.Myall, M., Levett?Jones, T., & Lathlean, J. (2008). Mentorship in contemporary practice the experiences of nursing students and practice mentors. Journal of clinical nursing, 17(14) 1834-1842.Nursing and midwifery Council, NMC. (2009). Additional information to support implementation of NMC Standards to support learning and assessment in practice. London, UK Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC).Nursing and Midwifery Council, NMC. (2008). The Code Standards of conduct, performance and ethics for nurses and midwives. London NMC. Retrieved from http//www.nmc-uk.org/aArticle.AspxPrice B. (2007). Practice-based assessment strategies for mentors. Nursing Standard, 21 (36), pp. 49-56.Polit, DF., & Beck, CT. (2008). Nursing search Generating and assessing evidence for nursing practice. Philadelphia, PA Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.Zachary, LJ. (2011). The men tors guide Facilitating effective learning relationships. New York, NY hindquarters Wiley & Sons.AppendicesAppendix 1 Critical thinking competency standardsSource http//www.drake.edu/media/collegesschools/soe/images/msld/competency_model.png Appendix 2 Essential competencies for an effective mentor